A Review of the Replacement of Food Packaging Plastics with Bio-Based Materials Inspired by NatureRoughly one-third of all food produced globally—valued at over $936 billion annually—is lost or wasted. At the same time, nearly 811 million people struggle with hunger. A critical component in the food supply chain, packaging plays a vital role in maintaining freshness, protecting against physical and microbial damage, and reducing overall spoilage. However, conventional petroleum-based plastic packaging, while effective in food preservation, presents serious environmental and health risks. These materials are slow to degrade, contribute to ocean microplastic pollution, and may leach toxic substances that pose threats to human health.
The urgency to replace plastic packaging has fueled the development of bio-based materials. Yet their inherent limitations—such as brittleness, poor moisture resistance, and single-functionality—restrict large-scale adoption. To overcome these challenges, scientists are increasingly turning to biomimicry, applying principles evolved in nature over millennia to engineer advanced, sustainable packaging solutions.
Fig 1. Trends of research article publications in the field of alternative plastic packaging for food in the last decade. (Hu S., et al., 2025)Fresh produce is prone to mechanical injury during harvesting, transport, and storage. Damage accelerates enzymatic browning, respiration, and ethylene production—shortening shelf life and increasing susceptibility to microbial contamination.
Nature offers elegant examples of impact-resilient structures. The grapefruit peel features a multi-layer porous mesocarp that disperses compressive force. Inspired by this, researchers engineered a composite with a honeycomb sponge core and filamentous hydrogel shell, achieving both elastic energy absorption and puncture resistance. Strawberries wrapped in this biomimetic film withstood shocks, vibration, and perforation tests, maintaining integrity and extending shelf life from 9 to 21 days.
Similarly, the cat paw's triple-layer structure—epidermis, dermis, and a collagen-rich subcutis—guided the development of cushioning scaffolds with elastic fiber networks and adipose-mimetic damping chambers, successfully reducing pressure impact on delicate foods like quail eggs.
These innovations translate natural architectures into high-performance protective packaging that minimizes produce losses across the supply chain.
Moisture accelerates microbial growth and degrades food texture. Nature's lotus leaf and swan feathers exhibit extreme water repellency via micro- and nanoscale surface structures coated in waxy films.
Bioengineers have recreated these effects using starch nanofiber membranes, carnauba wax, and chitosan composites. Films derived from rose petal topography achieved contact angles exceeding 134°, repelling water and common beverages. When applied to cherry tomatoes, these films extended freshness to 15 days—almost double that of traditional packaging.
In a broader comparison:
| Bionic Model | Water Contact Angle (°) | Shelf Life Gain |
|---|---|---|
| Swan Feather | 138 | Pork +3 days |
| Duck Feather | 142.6 | Beef +2 days |
| Lotus Leaf | >150 | Cabbage +4 days |
| Taro Leaf | 173 | Tomato +14 days |
These superhydrophobic coatings also drastically reduce food residue in containers. Coated polypropylene cups retained <2% residue of viscous substances like honey and yogurt, enhancing usability and recyclability. Withstanding 1200 bends and 70°C immersion, these coatings exhibit robust performance in real-world scenarios.
Paper straws, while biodegradable, suffer from water-induced disintegration. Inspired by sugarcane peels, researchers developed cellulose-based composite straws (CFS) with water contact angles of 153°. These straws maintained structural integrity in beverages ranging from coffee to electrolyte water and showed minimal swelling or delamination after 8 hours.
In comparative dissolution tests, traditional paper straws left >52% mass in fragments after 8 hours, while CFS straws had negligible residue. This advance addresses environmental concerns while preserving consumer experience.
Oxygen promotes food oxidation and spoilage, while carbon dioxide slows microbial growth. Plant stomata, which precisely control gas exchange, inspired selective-permeability membranes made of polylactic acid, chitosan microspheres, and tannic acid.
These hybrid films achieved CO₂/O₂ selectivity of 8.6, outperforming traditional shellac membranes (4.8). In practical tests, the films preserved oranges for 45 days, and cherries remained fresh across three reuse cycles.
Other gas-regulating systems include:
Such systems offer a dynamic response to the respiratory needs of various fruits and vegetables, optimizing shelf life.
Nature's chemical response to stress—such as plants releasing VOCs upon injury—inspired smart packaging with controlled antimicrobial release. These systems respond to environmental triggers like pH, humidity, light, or enzymes.
| Trigger | Material System | Effect |
|---|---|---|
| pH | ZIF-8/κ-carrageenan/zein with thymol | Blueberry shelf life +9 days |
| Humidity | Zein-based nanofiber with thyme oil | Strawberry quality preserved for 6 days |
| Light | Zn2+-loaded hydrogel | Sustained antimicrobial activity >15 days |
| Temperature | PLA/PVA with lemon oil | Reduced strawberry decay at 35°C |
Despite their promise, concerns include migration of active agents, toxicity of carriers, and scale-up complexity. Future research must focus on safe encapsulation methods and real-world validation.
Inspired by cephalopod skin and plant ripening, smart films embedded with anthocyanins, chlorophyll, or curcumin change color in response to spoilage gases or pH shifts.
Limitations include:
Recent advances address these issues. A fluorescent sensor array combined with deep learning achieved >97% accuracy in identifying the freshness of spinach, sweet corn, and beans. Layer-by-layer casting techniques improved reusability, while advanced films with pH-sensitive cellulose coatings endured 1,000 fold cycles without structural degradation.
Such smart packaging offers real-time visual cues, empowering consumers and reducing waste.
Damage to packaging allows air and microbes to enter, accelerating spoilage. Inspired by plant wound healing and animal skin regeneration, scientists developed hydrogels and films that self-repair after mechanical injury.
Key examples:
| Material | Mechanism | Healing Time | Benefit |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alginate + wheat gluten | Electrostatic | 60 sec | Banana shelf life +7 days |
| Nanocellulose + borax | Borate bonding | 1 sec | Fish shelf life +9 days |
| Tamarind polysaccharide | Hydrogen bonding | 60 min | Red snapper freshness retention |
Safety concerns limit options; some agents (e.g., acrylamide, borax) are not food-safe. There's a critical need for non-toxic, food-grade self-healing agents.
Many biomimetic films surpass plastic in mechanical performance. Inspired by spider silk, researchers synthesized soy protein–tannic acid films with 44.6 MPa tensile strength and 44.7 MJ/m³ fracture energy. These were fully biodegradable within 7 weeks, and recyclable in hot water.
Another innovation mimics nacre (mother of pearl). Films made from sodium alginate, mica nanosheets, and glycerol reproduced the brick-and-mortar architecture of oyster shells. They supported weights of up to 5 kg and preserved cherry tomatoes for over two weeks.
Comparative Strength Table:
| Film Type | Inspired By | Strength (MPa) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Chitosan/PVA + mussel proteins | Mussel | 45.2 | Strong and flexible |
| Cellulose/Calcium Phosphate | Bone | 145.6 | Highest mechanical rating |
| Polylactic acid + nacre mimic | Nacre | 97.0 | High modulus (8 GPa) |
Such designs strike a balance between durability, biodegradability, and functionality.
Nature's ingenuity offers a vast reservoir of structural and functional inspiration to tackle one of the most pressing environmental problems: plastic food packaging. By integrating biomimetic principles into packaging design, researchers are creating materials that not only match or exceed plastic performance but also offer novel functionalities—from real-time freshness indicators to self-healing films.
The synergy between biology, materials science, and sustainable engineering is ushering in a new era of eco-intelligent packaging. With continued investment in non-toxic material development, manufacturing scalability, and real-world validation, biomimicry has the potential to reshape global food systems—starting at the humble supermarket shelf.
If you are interested in our services and products, please contact us for more information.
Reference
This article is for research use only and cannot be used for any clinical purposes.
